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4.5.2 Relational Operators and Membership Tests

1
[ The equality operators = (equals) and /= (not equals) are predefined for nonlimited types. The other relational_operators are the ordering operators < (less than), <= (less than or equal), > (greater than), and >= (greater than or equal). The ordering operators are predefined for scalar types, and for discrete array types, that is, one-dimensional array types whose components are of a discrete type. 
1.a
Ramification: The equality operators are not defined for every nonlimited type — see below for the exact rule. 
2/3
{AI05-0262-1} {AI05-0269-1} A membership test, using in or not in, determines whether or not a value belongs to any given subtype or range, is equal to any given value, has a tag that identifies a type that is covered by a given type, or is convertible to and has an accessibility level appropriate for a given access type. Membership tests are allowed for all types.]

Name Resolution Rules

3/3
{AI95-00251-01} {AI05-0158-1} The tested type of a membership test is determined by the membership_choices of the membership_choice_list. Either all membership_choices of the membership_choice_list shall resolve to the same type, which is the tested type; or each membership_choice shall be of an elementary type, and the tested type shall be covered by each of these elementary types.
3.1/5
 {AI05-0158-1} {AI12-0039-1} {AI12-0418-1} If the tested type is tagged, then the tested_simple_expression shall resolve to be of a type that is convertible (see 4.6) to the tested type; if untagged, the expected type of the tested_simple_expression is the tested type. The expected type of a choice_simple_expression in a membership_choice, and of a simple_expression of a range in a membership_choice, is the tested type of the membership operation.
3.a/2
Reason: {AI95-00230-01} The part of the rule for untagged types is stated in a way that ensures that operands like a string literal are still legal as operands of a membership test.
3.b/4
{AI95-00251-01} {AI12-0039-1} The significance of “is convertible to” is that we allow the tested_simple_expression to be of any class-wide type that could be converted to the tested type, not just the one rooted at the tested type. This includes any class-wide type that covers the tested type, along with class-wide interfaces in some cases.
3.c/3
{AI05-0158-1} The special rule for determining the tested type for elementary types is to allow numeric literals in membership_choice_lists. Without the rule, A in B | 1 would be illegal as B and 1 would have different types (the literal having type universal integer).

Legality Rules

4/4
{AI12-0039-1} For a membership test, if the tested_simple_expression is of a tagged class-wide type, then the tested type shall be (visibly) tagged. 
4.a
Ramification: Untagged types covered by the tagged class-wide type are not permitted. Such types can exist if they are descendants of a private type whose full type is tagged. This rule is intended to avoid confusion since such derivatives don't have their “own” tag, and hence are indistinguishable from one another at run time once converted to a covering class-wide type.
4.1/5
 {AI05-0158-1} {AI12-0039-1} {AI12-0328-1} If a membership test includes one or more choice_simple_expressions and the tested type of the membership test is limited, then the tested type of the membership test shall have a visible primitive equality operator; if the tested type of the membership test is nonlimited with a user-defined primitive equality operator that is defined at a point where the type is limited, the tested type shall be a record type or record extension.
4.b/3
Reason: {AI05-0158-1} A visible equality operator is required in order to avoid breaking privacy; that is, we don't want to depend on a hidden equality operator.
4.c/5
{AI12-0328-1} We make the membership test on the nonlimited view of a type illegal if it would use a different equality operator than what would be used for a limited view of the same type (and such a limited view is known to exist). 

Static Semantics

5
The result type of a membership test is the predefined type Boolean.
6
The equality operators are predefined for every specific type T that is not limited, and not an anonymous access type, with the following specifications:
7
function "=" (Left, Right : Treturn Boolean
function "/="(Left, Right : Treturn Boolean
7.1/2
 {AI95-00230-01} The following additional equality operators for the universal_access type are declared in package Standard for use with anonymous access types:
7.2/2
function "=" (Left, Right : universal_accessreturn Boolean
function "/="(Left, Right : universal_accessreturn Boolean
8
The ordering operators are predefined for every specific scalar type T, and for every discrete array type T, with the following specifications: 
9
function "<" (Left, Right : Treturn Boolean
function "<="(Left, Right : Treturn Boolean
function ">" (Left, Right : Treturn Boolean
function ">="(Left, Right : Treturn Boolean

Name Resolution Rules

9.1/2
 {AI95-00230-01} {AI95-00420-01} At least one of the operands of an equality operator for universal_access shall be of a specific anonymous access type. Unless the predefined equality operator is identified using an expanded name with prefix denoting the package Standard, neither operand shall be of an access-to-object type whose designated type is D or D'Class, where D has a user-defined primitive equality operator such that: 
9.2/2
its result type is Boolean;
9.3/3
{AI05-0020-1} it is declared immediately within the same declaration list as D or any partial or incomplete view of D; and
9.4/2
at least one of its operands is an access parameter with designated type D
9.a/2
Reason: The first sentence prevents compatibility problems by ensuring that these operators are not used for named access types. Also, universal access types do not count for the purposes of this rule. Otherwise, equality expressions like (X = null) would be ambiguous for normal access types.
9.b/2
The rest of the rule makes it possible to call (including a dispatching call) user-defined "=" operators for anonymous access-to-object types (they'd be hidden otherwise), and to write user-defined "=" operations for anonymous access types (by making it possible to see the universal operator using the Standard prefix). 
9.c/2
Ramification: We don't need a similar rule for anonymous access-to-subprogram types because they can't be primitive for any type. Note that any nonprimitive user-defined equality operators still are hidden by the universal operators; they'll have to be called with a package prefix, but they are likely to be very uncommon. 

Legality Rules

9.5/2
 {AI95-00230-01} At least one of the operands of the equality operators for universal_access shall be of type universal_access, or both shall be of access-to-object types, or both shall be of access-to-subprogram types. Further: 
9.6/2
When both are of access-to-object types, the designated types shall be the same or one shall cover the other, and if the designated types are elementary or array types, then the designated subtypes shall statically match;
9.7/2
When both are of access-to-subprogram types, the designated profiles shall be subtype conformant. 
9.d/2
Reason: We don't want to allow completely arbitrary comparisons, as we don't want to insist that all access types are represented in ways that are convertible to one another. For instance, a compiler could use completely separate address spaces or incompatible representations. Instead, we allow compares if there exists an access parameter to which both operands could be converted. Since the user could write such an subprogram, and any reasonable meaning for "=" would allow using it in such a subprogram, this doesn't impose any further restrictions on Ada implementations. 
9.8/5
 {AI05-0123-1} {AI12-0101-1} {AI12-0352-1} If the profile of an explicitly declared primitive equality operator of an untagged record type is type conformant with that of the corresponding predefined equality operator, the declaration shall occur before the type is frozen. In addition, no type shall have been derived from the untagged record type before the declaration of the primitive equality operator. In addition to the places where Legality Rules normally apply (see 12.3), this rule applies also in the private part of an instance of a generic unit. 

Dynamic Semantics

10
For discrete types, the predefined relational operators are defined in terms of corresponding mathematical operations on the position numbers of the values of the operands.
11
For real types, the predefined relational operators are defined in terms of the corresponding mathematical operations on the values of the operands, subject to the accuracy of the type. 
11.a
Ramification: For floating point types, the results of comparing nearly equal values depends on the accuracy of the implementation (see G.2.1, “Model of Floating Point Arithmetic” for implementations that support the Numerics Annex). 
11.b
Implementation Note: On a machine with signed zeros, if the generated code generates both plus zero and minus zero, plus and minus zero must be equal by the predefined equality operators.
12
Two access-to-object values are equal if they designate the same object, or if both are equal to the null value of the access type.
13
Two access-to-subprogram values are equal if they are the result of the same evaluation of an Access attribute_reference, or if both are equal to the null value of the access type. Two access-to-subprogram values are unequal if they designate different subprograms. [It is unspecified whether two access values that designate the same subprogram but are the result of distinct evaluations of Access attribute_references are equal or unequal.] 
13.a
Reason: This allows each Access attribute_reference for a subprogram to designate a distinct “wrapper” subprogram if necessary to support an indirect call. 
14/3
{AI05-0123-1} For a type extension, predefined equality is defined in terms of the primitive [(possibly user-defined)] equals operator for the parent type and for any components that have a record type in the extension part, and predefined equality for any other components not inherited from the parent type. 
14.a
Ramification: Two values of a type extension are not equal if there is a variant_part in the extension part and the two values have different variants present. This is a ramification of the requirement that a discriminant governing such a variant_part has to be a “new” discriminant, and so has to be equal in the two values for the values to be equal. Note that variant_parts in the parent part need not match if the primitive equals operator for the parent type considers them equal.
14.b/2
{AI95-00349-01} The full type extension's operation is used for a private extension. This follows as only full types have parent types; the type specified in a private extension is an ancestor, but not necessarily the parent type. For instance, in: 
14.c/2
with Pak1;
package Pak2 is
   type Typ3 is new Pak1.Typ1 with private;
private
   type Typ3 is new Pak1.Typ2 with null record;
end Pak2;
  
14.d/2
the parent type is Pak1.Typ2, not Pak1.Typ1, and the equality operator of Pak1.Typ2 is used to create predefined equality for Typ3. 
15/5
{AI05-0123-1} {AI12-0328-1} For a private type, if its full type is a record type or a record extension, predefined equality is defined in terms of the primitive equals operator of the full type; otherwise, predefined equality for the private type is that of its full type.
16
For other composite types, the predefined equality operators [(and certain other predefined operations on composite types — see 4.5.1 and 4.6)] are defined in terms of the corresponding operation on matching components, defined as follows: 
17
For two composite objects or values of the same non-array type, matching components are those that correspond to the same component_declaration or discriminant_specification;
18
For two one-dimensional arrays of the same type, matching components are those (if any) whose index values match in the following sense: the lower bounds of the index ranges are defined to match, and the successors of matching indices are defined to match;
19
For two multidimensional arrays of the same type, matching components are those whose index values match in successive index positions. 
20
The analogous definitions apply if the types of the two objects or values are convertible, rather than being the same. 
20.a
Discussion: Ada 83 seems to omit this part of the definition, though it is used in array type conversions. See 4.6
21
Given the above definition of matching components, the result of the predefined equals operator for composite types (other than for those composite types covered earlier) is defined as follows: 
22
If there are no components, the result is defined to be True;
23
If there are unmatched components, the result is defined to be False;
24/3
{AI05-0123-1} Otherwise, the result is defined in terms of the primitive equals operator for any matching components that are records, and the predefined equals for any other matching components. 
24.a/3
Reason: {AI05-0123-1} This asymmetry between components with and without a record type is necessary to preserve most upward compatibility and corresponds with the corresponding situation with generics, where the predefined operations “reemerge” in a generic for non-record types, but do not for record types. Also, only tagged types support user-defined assignment (see 7.6), so only tagged types can fully handle levels of indirection in the implementation of the type. For untagged types, one reason for a user-defined equals operator might be to allow values with different bounds or discriminants to compare equal in certain cases. When such values are matching components, the bounds or discriminants will necessarily match anyway if the discriminants of the enclosing values match. 
24.b
Ramification: Two null arrays of the same type are always equal; two null records of the same type are always equal.
24.c/3
{AI05-0123-1} Note that if a composite object has a component of a floating point type, and the floating point type has both a plus and minus zero, which are considered equal by the predefined equality, then a block compare cannot be used for the predefined composite equality. Of course, with user-defined equals operators for components that are records, a block compare breaks down anyway, so this is not the only special case that requires component-by-component comparisons. On a one's complement machine, a similar situation might occur for integer types, since one's complement machines typically have both a plus and minus (integer) zero. 
24.d/2
To be honest: {AI95-00230-01} For a component with an anonymous access type, “predefined equality” is that defined for the universal_access type (anonymous access types have no equality operators of their own).
24.e/3
{AI05-0123-1} For a component with a record type T, “the primitive equals operator” is the one with two parameters of T which returns Boolean. We're not talking about some random other primitive function named "=". 
24.1/5
  {AI05-0123-1} {AI12-0413-1} If the primitive equals operator for an untagged record type is abstract, then Program_Error is raised at the point of any call to that abstract subprogram[, implicitly as part of an equality operation on an enclosing composite object, or in an instance of a generic with a formal private type where the actual type is a record type with an abstract "="].
24.f/5
Reason: {AI12-0413-1} An explicit call to an abstract subprogram is generally illegal. This rule is needed in order to define the effect of a call in an instance of a generic body, or an implicit call such as a call that is part of the predefined equality operation for an enclosing composite type that has a component of an untagged record type that has an abstract primitive equals operator. For tagged types, an abstract primitive equals operator is only allowed for an abstract type, and abstract types cannot be components, so this case does not occur. 
24.2/1
  {8652/0016} {AI95-00123-01} For any composite type, the order in which "=" is called for components is unspecified. Furthermore, if the result can be determined before calling "=" on some components, it is unspecified whether "=" is called on those components.
25
The predefined "/=" operator gives the complementary result to the predefined "=" operator. 
25.a
Ramification: Furthermore, if the user defines an "=" operator that returns Boolean, then a "/=" operator is implicitly declared in terms of the user-defined "=" operator so as to give the complementary result. See 6.6.
26/3
{AI05-0264-1} For a discrete array type, the predefined ordering operators correspond to lexicographic order using the predefined order relation of the component type: A null array is lexicographically less than any array having at least one component. In the case of nonnull arrays, the left operand is lexicographically less than the right operand if the first component of the left operand is less than that of the right; otherwise, the left operand is lexicographically less than the right operand only if their first components are equal and the tail of the left operand is lexicographically less than that of the right (the tail consists of the remaining components beyond the first and can be null).
26.1/3
  {AI05-0269-1} An individual membership test is the membership test of a single membership_choice.
27/4
{AI05-0158-1} {AI12-0039-1} For the evaluation of a membership test using in whose membership_choice_list has a single membership_choice, the tested_simple_expression and the membership_choice are evaluated in an arbitrary order; the result is the result of the individual membership test for the membership_choice.
27.1/4
  {AI05-0158-1} {AI12-0039-1} For the evaluation of a membership test using in whose membership_choice_list has more than one membership_choice, the tested_simple_expression of the membership test is evaluated first and the result of the operation is equivalent to that of a sequence consisting of an individual membership test on each membership_choice combined with the short-circuit control form or else.
27.a.1/3
Ramification: {AI05-0158-1} This equivalence includes the evaluation of the membership_choices; evaluation stops as soon as an individual choice evaluates to True. 
28/3
{AI05-0158-1} {AI05-0269-1} An individual membership test yields the result True if: 
28.1/5
{AI05-0158-1} {AI05-0264-1} {AI12-0039-1} {AI12-0328-1} The membership_choice is a choice_simple_expression, and the tested_simple_expression is equal to the value of the membership_choice. If the tested type is a record type or a record extension, or is limited at the point where the membership test occurs, the test uses the primitive equality for the type; otherwise, the test uses predefined equality.
28.a/5
Reason: We use the predefined equality operator if the membership test occurs where the type is nonlimited if the type is not a record type or record extension. However, to avoid confusion, cases where a membership test could use different equality operators based on the view are illegal. 
28.2/4
{AI05-0153-3} {AI05-0158-1} {AI12-0039-1} The membership_choice is a range and the value of the tested_simple_expression belongs to the given range.
29/4
{AI05-0153-3} {AI05-0158-1} {AI12-0039-1} {AI12-0071-1} The membership_choice is a subtype_mark, the tested type is scalar, the value of the tested_simple_expression belongs to the range of the named subtype, and the value satisfies the predicates of the named subtype. 
29.a/3
Ramification: {AI05-0153-3} The scalar membership test only does a range check and a predicate check. It does not perform any other check, such as whether a value falls in a “hole” of a “holey” enumeration type. The Pos attribute function can be used for that purpose.
29.b
Even though Standard.Float is an unconstrained subtype, the test “X in Float” will still return False (presuming the evaluation of X does not raise Constraint_Error) when X is outside Float'Range. 
30/4
{AI95-00231-01} {AI05-0153-3} {AI05-0158-1} {AI12-0039-1} {AI12-0071-1} The membership_choice is a subtype_mark, the tested type is not scalar, the value of the tested_simple_expression satisfies any constraints of the named subtype, the value satisfies the predicates of the named subtype, and: 
30.1/4
{AI95-00231-01} {AI12-0039-1} if the type of the tested_simple_expression is class-wide, the value has a tag that identifies a type covered by the tested type; 
30.a/4
Ramification: {AI12-0039-1} Note that the tag is not checked if the tested_simple_expression is of a specific type. 
30.2/4
{AI95-00231-01} {AI05-0149-1} {AI12-0039-1} if the tested type is an access type and the named subtype excludes null, the value of the tested_simple_expression is not null;
30.3/4
{AI05-0149-1} {AI12-0039-1} if the tested type is a general access-to-object type, the type of the tested_simple_expression is convertible to the tested type and its accessibility level is no deeper than that of the tested type; further, if the designated type of the tested type is tagged and the tested_simple_expression is nonnull, the tag of the object designated by the value of the tested_simple_expression is covered by the designated type of the tested type. 
30.b/5
To be honest: {AI12-0005-1} In some of these cases, the bulleted checks need to pass before any predicate check is executed. Otherwise, a predicate check could be performed on an object of the wrong type. Consider:
30.c/5
type Root is tagged null record;
type Ext is new Root with record Data : Integer; end record;
function Is_Even (Param : Ext) return Boolean is
   (Param.Data mod 2 = 0);
subtype Even_Ext is Ext
  with Dynamic_Predicate => Is_Even (Even_Ext);
function F (X : Root'Class) return Boolean is
   (X in Even_Ext);
Flag : Boolean := F (Root'(null record));
30.d/5
If the predicate check is performed before the tag check or regardless of the result of that check, Is_Even would be called on an object that does not have a Data component. Similar cases can be constructed for general access types. 
31/3
{AI05-0264-1} Otherwise, the test yields the result False.
32
A membership test using not in gives the complementary result to the corresponding membership test using in.
32.a/4
To be honest: {AI05-0158-1} {AI12-0039-1} X not in A | B | C is intended to be exactly equivalent to not (X in A | B | C), including the order of evaluation of the tested_simple_expression and membership_choices.

Implementation Requirements

32.1/1
  {8652/0016} {AI95-00123-01} For all nonlimited types declared in language-defined packages, the "=" and "/=" operators of the type shall behave as if they were the predefined equality operators for the purposes of the equality of composite types and generic formal types. 
32.a.1/3
Ramification: {AI95-00123-01} {AI05-0123-1} If any language-defined types are implemented with a user-defined "=" operator, then either the full type must be a record type, or the compiler must use “magic” to implement equality for this type. A normal user-defined "=" operator for a non-record type does not meet this requirement. 
33/2
This paragraph was deleted.{AI95-00230-01}
34
NOTE   If a composite type has components that depend on discriminants, two values of this type have matching components if and only if their discriminants are equal. Two nonnull arrays have matching components if and only if the length of each dimension is the same for both. 

Examples

35
Examples of expressions involving relational operators and membership tests: 
36
X /= Y
37/5
{AI12-0178-1} {AI12-0425-1} A_String = "A"                        -- True (see 3.3.1)
"" < A_String and A_String < "Aa"     -- True
A_String < "Bb" and A_String < "A  "  -- True
38/3
{AI05-0264-1} My_Car = null        -- True if My_Car has been set to null (see 3.10.1)
My_Car = Your_Car           -- True if we both share the same car
My_Car.all = Your_Car.all   -- True if the two cars are identical
39/3
{AI05-0158-1} N not in 1 .. 10            -- range membership test
Today in Mon .. Fri         -- range membership test
Today in Weekday            -- subtype membership test (see 3.5.1)
Card in Clubs | Spades      -- list membership test (see 3.5.1)
Archive in Disk_Unit        -- subtype membership test (see 3.8.1)
Tree.all in Addition'Class  -- class membership test (see 3.9.1)

Extensions to Ada 83

39.a
Membership tests can be used to test the tag of a class-wide value.
39.b
Predefined equality for a composite type is defined in terms of the primitive equals operator for tagged components or the parent part. 

Wording Changes from Ada 83

39.c
The term “membership test” refers to the relation "X in S" rather to simply the reserved word in or not in.
39.d
We use the term “equality operator” to refer to both the = (equals) and /= (not equals) operators. Ada 83 referred to = as the equality operator, and /= as the inequality operator. The new wording is more consistent with the ISO 10646 name for "=" (equals sign) and provides a category similar to “ordering operator” to refer to both = and /=.
39.e
We have changed the term “catenate” to “concatenate”. 

Extensions to Ada 95

39.f/2
{AI95-00230-01} {AI95-00420-01} The universal_access equality operators are new. They provide equality operations (most importantly, testing against null) for anonymous access types. 

Wording Changes from Ada 95

39.g/2
{8652/0016} {AI95-00123-01} Corrigendum: Wording was added to clarify that the order of calls (and whether the calls are made at all) on "=" for components is unspecified. Also clarified that "=" must compose properly for language-defined types.
39.h/2
{AI95-00251-01} Memberships were adjusted to allow interfaces which don't cover the tested type, in order to be consistent with type conversions. 

Inconsistencies With Ada 2005

39.i/3
{AI05-0123-1} User-defined untagged record equality is now defined to compose and be used in generics. Any code which assumes that the predefined equality reemerges in generics and in predefined equals for composite types could fail. However, it is much more likely that this change will fix bugs, as the behavior that would be expected (the user-defined "=" is used) will be true in more cases.
39.j/3
{AI05-0123-1} If a composite type contains a component of an untagged record type with an abstract equality operation, calling "=" on the composite type will raise Program_Error, while in the past a result will be returned using the predefined equality. This is quite possible in ASIS programs; it will detect a bug in such programs but of course the programs will need to be fixed before they will work. 

Incompatibilities With Ada 2005

39.k/3
{AI05-0123-1} Late and hidden overriding of equality for untagged record types is now prohibited. This is necessary to make composition of equality predictable. It should always be possible to move the overriding to an earlier spot where it will be legal. 

Extensions to Ada 2005

39.l/3
{AI05-0149-1} Membership tests for valid accessibility levels and tag coverage by the designated type for general access types are new.
39.m/3
{AI05-0153-3} Membership tests now include a predicate check.
39.n/3
{AI05-0158-1} Membership tests now allow multiple choices. 

Wording Changes from Ada 2005

39.o/3
{AI05-0020-1} Correction: Wording was added to clarify that universal_access "=" does not apply if an appropriate operator is declared for a partial or incomplete view of the designated type. Otherwise, adding a partial or incomplete view could make some "=" operators ambiguous. 

Inconsistencies With Ada 2012

39.p/4
{AI12-0101-1} Corrigendum: Removed the incompatible rule preventing the declaration of "=" in the private part of a package specification for an untagged record type that completes a private type. Any code that calls the predefined "=" on the private type will now execute the body for the redefined "=" instead for the predefined "=". Eliminating the rule eliminates an unnecessary incompatibility (especially for programs that never call the predefined "="). Moreover, (like the composition of untagged record "=" in Ada 2012) this is more likely to fix bugs than cause them (who defines an "=" with a presumably different result and does not want clients to use it?). 

Incompatibilities With Ada 2012

39.q/5
{AI12-0328-1} A membership test is now illegal if all of the following are True: 
39.r/5
The membership test has one or more choice_simple_expressions;
39.s/5
The membership test occurs in a place where the tested type is nonlimited;
39.t/5
The tested type has a limited view with a primitive "=" operator;
39.u/5
The full type of the tested type is not a record type or a record extension. 
39.v/5
In such a case, the limited and nonlimited views would use different equality operators, which would be confusing and would cause various semantic difficulties. We believe such cases to be quite rare, especially as such membership tests are new to Ada 2012. The workaround is to replace such memberships with equality tests (assuming that the primitive "=" is intended; the predefined "=" is hidden in such cases and an extra type is needed to make it accessible).

Wording Changes from Ada 2012

39.w/4
{AI12-0039-1} Corrigendum: Reworded membership tests to use the syntax items tested_simple_expression and choice_simple_expression. This was necessary to eliminate wording ambiguities introduced when the grammar was corrected to eliminate syntax ambiguities. (Both of the above are now simple_expressions, so merely talking about a simple_expression is insufficient.)
39.x/4
{AI12-0071-1} Corrigendum: Updated wording of the membership tests to use the new term "satisfies the predicates" (see 3.2.4).
39.y/5
{AI12-0413-1} Correction: Clarified that a call to an abstract equality in an instance body raises Program_Error. 

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